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Wikipedia / Clebsch–Gordan coefficients

In physics, the Clebsch–Gordan (CG) coefficients are numbers that arise in angular momentum coupling in quantum mechanics. They appear as the expansion coefficients of total angular momentum eigenstates in an uncoupled tensor product basis. In more mathematical terms, the CG coefficients are used in representation theory, particularly of compact Lie groups, to perform the explicit direct sum decomposition of the tensor product of two irreducible representations (i.e., a reducible representation into irreducible representations, in cases where the numbers and types of irreducible components are already known abstractly). The name derives from the German mathematicians Alfred Clebsch and Paul Gordan, who encountered an equivalent problem in invariant theory.

From a vector calculus perspective, the CG coefficients associated with the SO(3) group can be defined simply in terms of integrals of products of spherical harmonics and their complex conjugates. The addition of spins in quantum-mechanical terms can be read directly from this approach as spherical harmonics are eigenfunctions of total angular momentum and projection thereof onto an axis, and the integrals correspond to the Hilbert space inner product. From the formal definition of angular momentum, recursion relations for the Clebsch–Gordan coefficients can be found. There also exist complicated explicit formulas for their direct calculation.

The formulas below use Dirac's bra–ket notation and the Condon–Shortley phase convention is adopted.

Review of the angular momentum operators

Angular momentum operators are self-adjoint operators , , and that satisfy the commutation relations where is the Levi-Civita symbol. Together the three operators define a vector operator, a rank one Cartesian tensor operator It is also known as a spherical vector, since it is also a spherical tensor operator. It is only for rank one that spherical tensor operators coincide with the Cartesian tensor operators.

By developing this concept further, one can define another operator as the inner product of This is an example of a Casimir operator. It is diagonal and its eigenvalue characterizes the particular irreducible representation. This is physically interpreted as the square of the total angular momentum of the states on which the representation acts.

One can also define raising () and lowering () operators, the so-called ladder operators

Spherical basis for angular momentum eigenstates

It can be shown from the above definitions that commutes with , , and

When two Hermitian operators commute, a common set of eigenstates exists. Conventionally, and are chosen. From the commutation relations, the possible eigenvalues can be found. These eigenstates are denoted where is the angular momentum quantum number and is the angular momentum projection onto the z-axis.

They comprise the spherical basis

The raising and lowering operators can be used to alter the value of where the ladder coefficient is given by:

In principle, one may also introduce a (possibly complex) phase factor. The choice made in this article is in agreement with the Condon–Shortley phase convention

Here the italicized and denote integer or half-integer angular momentum quantum numbers of a particle or of a system. On the other hand, the roman , , , , , and symbols are Kronecker deltas.

Tensor product space

We now consider systems with two physically different angular momenta and . We are then going to define a family of "total angular momentum" operators acting on the tensor product. The action of the total angular momentum operator on this space constitutes a representation of the SU(2) Lie algebra, but a reducible one. The reduction of this reducible representation into irreducible pieces is the goal of Clebsch–Gordan theory.

Let be the -dimensional vector space and the

The tensor product of these spaces, , has a -dimensional uncoupled Angular momentum operators are defined to act on states in where denotes the identity operator.

The total angular momentum operators are defined by the coproduct (or tensor product) of the two representations acting on ,

The total angular momentum operators can be shown to satisfy the very same commutation relations where . Indeed, the preceding construction is the standard method for constructing an action of a Lie algebra on a tensor product representation.

Hence, a set of coupled for . Note that it is common to omit the part.

The total angular momentum quantum number such that the three nonnegative integer or half-integer values could correspond to the three sides of a triangle.

The total number of total angular momentum eigenstates is necessarily equal to the dimension of in increments of 1.. Thus, the six-dimensional tensor product representation decomposes as the direct sum of a two-dimensional representation and a four-dimensional representation.

The goal is now to describe the preceding decomposition explicitly, that is, to explicitly describe basis elements in the tensor product space for each of the component representations that arise.

The total angular momentum states form an orthonormal basis of

These rules may be iterated to, e.g., combine doublets (=1/2) to obtain the Clebsch-Gordan decomposition series, (Catalan's triangle is the integer floor function; and the number preceding the boldface irreducible representation dimensionality () label indicates multiplicity of that representation in the representation reduction..

Formal definition of Clebsch–Gordan coefficients

The coupled states can be expanded via the completeness relation (resolution of identity) in the uncoupled basis

The expansion coefficients

are the Clebsch–Gordan coefficients. Note that some authors write them in a different order such as . Another common notation is .

Applying the operators

to both sides of the defining equation shows that the Clebsch–Gordan coefficients can only be nonzero when

Recursion relations

The recursion relations were discovered by physicist Giulio Racah from the Hebrew University of Jerusalem in 1941.

Combining these results gives recursion relations for the Clebsch–Gordan coefficients, where was defined in

Taking the upper sign with the condition that In the Condon–Shortley phase convention, one adds the constraint that

(and is therefore also real). The Clebsch–Gordan coefficients can then be found from these recursion relations. The normalization is fixed by the requirement that the sum of the squares, which equivalent to the requirement that the norm of the state must be one.

The lower sign in the recursion relation can be used to find all the Clebsch–Gordan coefficients with . Repeated use of that equation gives all coefficients.

This procedure to find the Clebsch–Gordan coefficients shows that they are all real in the Condon–Shortley phase convention.

Explicit expression

Orthogonality relations

Special cases

For

For and

For

For ,

For

Symmetry properties

A convenient way to derive these relations is by converting the Clebsch–Gordan coefficients to Wigner 3-j symbols using . The symmetry properties of Wigner 3-j symbols are much simpler.

Rules for phase factors

Care is needed when simplifying phase factors: a quantum number may be a half-integer rather than an integer, therefore is not necessarily for a given quantum number for any angular-momentum-like quantum number .

Nonetheless, a combination of and This identity also holds if the sign of either or or both is reversed.

It is useful to observe that any phase factor for a given where and (other conventions are possible too). Converting phase factors into this form makes it easy to tell whether two phase factors are equivalent. (Note that this form is only locally canonical: it fails to take into account the rules that govern combinations of pairs such as the one described in the next paragraph.)

An additional rule holds for combinations of , , and This identity also holds if the sign of any is reversed, or if any of them are substituted with an instead.

Relation to Wigner 3-j symbols

Clebsch–Gordan coefficients are related to Wigner 3-j symbols which have more convenient symmetry relations.

The factor is due to the Condon–Shortley constraint that , while is due to the time-reversed nature of .

This allows to reach the general expression:

The summation is performed over those integer values for which the argument of each factorial in the denominator is non-negative, i.e. summation limits and Factorials of negative numbers are conventionally taken equal to zero, so that the values of the 3j are automatically set to zero.

Relation to Wigner D-matrices

Relation to spherical harmonics

In the case where integers are involved, the coefficients can be related to integrals of spherical harmonics

Other properties

Clebsch–Gordan coefficients for specific groups

For arbitrary groups and their representations, Clebsch–Gordan coefficients are not known in general. However, algorithms to produce Clebsch–Gordan coefficients for the special unitary group SU(n) are known. In particular, SU(3) Clebsch-Gordan coefficients have been computed and tabulated because of their utility in characterizing hadronic decays, where a flavor-SU(3) symmetry exists that relates the up, down, and strange quarks. A web interface for tabulating SU(N) Clebsch–Gordan coefficients is readily available.

Remarks

Notes

References

Albert Messiah (1966). Quantum Mechanics (Vols. I & II), English translation from French by G. M. Temmer. North Holland, John Wiley & Sons.