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Wikipedia / Potawatomi

The Potawatomi (), also spelled Pottawatomi and Pottawatomie (among many variations), are an Indigenous North American tribe of the Great Plains, upper Mississippi River, and western Great Lakes region. They traditionally speak the Potawatomi language, a member of the Algonquian family. They are additionally First Nations in Canada. The Potawatomi call themselves Neshnabé, a cognate of the word Anishinaabe. They are part of a long-term alliance, the Council of Three Fires, with the Ojibwe and Odawa (Ottawa). The Potawatomi are considered the "youngest brother" among the three peoples, and are referred to in this context as Bodéwadmi ('keepers of the fire'), referring to the council fire of the alliance.

In the 19th century, some bands of Potawatomi migrated west parallel to European and American settlement. In the 1830s the federal government removed most from their lands east of the Mississippi River to Indian Territory—first in Kansas, then Nebraska, finally Oklahoma. Some bands survived in the Great Lakes region and today are federally recognized as tribes, in addition to the Oklahoma Potawatomi.

Name

The English Potawatomi is derived from Ojibwe (syncopated in the Ottawa language as ). One of the Potawatomi names for their own people (autonym) is (without syncope: ; ), a cognate of the Ojibwe form, meaning 'those who tend the hearth-fire' of the Council. The word comes from Potawatomi (without syncope: ) 'to tend the hearth-fire'; the respective Ojibwe and Ottawa forms are and .

Alternatively, the Potawatomi call themselves (without syncope: ; ), cognate to Ojibwe ('original people').

Teachings

The Potawatomi instruct their children in the "Seven Grandfather Teachings" of wisdom, respect, love, honesty, humility, bravery, and truth, toward all of their people and all of creation.

A key story embodies these teachings, as well as the importance of patience and listening. It follows the Water Spider's journey to retrieve fire so that the other animals can survive the cold. As the other animals step forth dubiously one after another to undertake the quest, the Water Spider sits and listens. As they finish and wrestle with their fears, she steps forward and announces that she will bring the fire. As they laugh and doubt her, she weaves a bowl out of her web and sails across the water to the fire. She brings back a hot coal to make fire, and they honor her bravery in a great celebration.

History

In addition to their own history, the Potawatomi are mentioned in early 17th century French records, which suggest that they lived in what is now southwestern Michigan. During the Beaver Wars they fled to the area around Green Bay to escape the expansion of the Iroquois and the Neutral Confederacy seeking new hunting grounds. It is estimated the Potawatomi numbered around 3,000 in 1658.

As an important part of Tecumseh's Confederacy, Potawatomi warriors fought in Tecumseh's War and the War of 1812. Their alliances switched repeatedly between the United Kingdom and the United States as power shifted between the nations, and they calculated effects on their trade and land interests.

At the time of the War of 1812, a band of Potawatomi inhabited the area near Fort Dearborn, where Chicago developed. Chiefs Blackbird and Nuscotomeg (Mad Sturgeon), leading about 500 Potawatomi warriors, ambushed an American evacuation column in the Battle of Fort Dearborn. They killed most of the civilians and 54 of Captain Nathan Heald's force, and wounded many others; among them was George Ronan, the first graduate of West Point to be killed in combat. A Potawatomi chief named Mucktypoke (, Black Partridge), had counseled against the attack, and later saved some of the civilian captives being held for ransom.

Post-contact Potawatomi history is dvided into four main periods: French contact, British contact, the United States treaty, and Removal.

French period (1615–1763)

French contact began with early explorers who encountered the Potawatomi in western Michigan. They also found the tribe inhabiting the Door Peninsula of Wisconsin. By the end of the French period, the Potawatomi had begun to move near to Detroit, leaving the large communities in Wisconsin. Their chiefs included:

British period (1763–1783)

The British period began when France ceded its lands to Britain in the French and Indian War (Seven Years' War). Pontiac's Rebellion was an attempt by Native Americans to push out the British and other Europeans. The Potawatomi captured every British frontier garrison except Detroit.

The Potawatomi nation continued to grow and expanded westward from Detroit, most notably in the development of the St. Joseph villages adjacent to the Miami in southwestern Michigan. The Wisconsin communities expanded south along the Lake Michigan shoreline. Among their chiefs:

United States treaty period (1783–1830)

The period lasted from the Treaty of Paris, which ended the Revolutionary War and acknowledged the United States' power in the lower Great Lakes, until the treaties for Indian removal. The US recognized the Potawatomi as a single tribe. They often had a few tribal leaders whom all villages accepted. Their society was decentralized with several geographic divisions: Milwaukee or Wisconsin area, Detroit or Huron River, the St. Joseph River, the Kankakee River, Tippecanoe and Wabash Rivers, the Illinois River and Lake Peoria, and the Des Plaines and Fox Rivers.

Chiefs are listed below by geographic area.

Milwaukee Potawatomi

  • Manamol

  • Siggenauk (: "Le Tourneau" or "Blackbird")

Chicago Potawatomi

Des Plaines and Fox River Potawatomi

  • Aptakisic (, "Half Day")

  • Mukatapenaise, a.k.a. Black Partridge ( "Blackbird")

  • Waubonsie (Wabenizhi, 'He Causes Paleness,' related to 'waben' meaning dawn.)

  • Waweachsetoh along with La Gesse, Gomo or Masemo (Resting Fish)

Illinois River Potawatomi

  • Mucktypoke (: "Black Partridge")

  • Senachewine ( 1831) (Petacho or "Difficult Current") was the brother of Gomo who was chief among the Lake Peoria Potawatomi

Kankakee River (Iroquois and Yellow Rivers) Potawatomi

St. Joseph and Elkhart Potawatomi

Tippecanoe and Wabash River Potawatomi

Fort Wayne Potawatomi

  • Metea (1760?–1827) (, "Sulks")

  • Wabnaneme on the Pigeon River

American removal period (1830–1840)

The removal period of Potawatomi history began with the treaties of the late 1820s, when the United States created reservations. Billy Caldwell and Alexander Robinson negotiated for the United Nations of Chippewa, Ottawa and Potowatomi in the Second Treaty of Prairie du Chien (1829), by which they ceded most of their lands in Wisconsin and Michigan. Some Potawatomi became religious followers of the "Kickapoo Prophet", Kennekuk. Over the years, the US reduced the size of the reservations under pressure for land by incoming European Americans.

The final step followed the Treaty of Chicago, negotiated in 1833 for the tribes by Caldwell and Robinson. In return for land cessions, the US promised new lands, annuities and supplies to enable the peoples to develop new homes. The Illinois Potawatomi were removed to Nebraska and the Indiana Potawatomi to Kansas, both west of the Mississippi River. Often annuities and supplies were reduced, or late in arrival, and the Potawatomi suffered after their relocations. Those in Kansas were later removed to Indian Territory (now Oklahoma). The removal of the Indiana Potawatomi was documented by a Catholic priest, Benjamin Petit, who accompanied the Indians on the Potawatomi Trail of Death in 1838. Petit died while returning to Indiana in 1839. His diary was published in 1941, over 100 years after his death, by the Indiana Historical Society.

Many Potawatomi found ways to remain, primarily those in Michigan. Others fled to their Odawa neighbors or to Canada to avoid removal to the west.

Bands

There are several active bands of Potawatomi.

United States

Federally recognized Potawatomi tribes in the United States:

Canada – First Nations with Potawatomi people

Population

Clans

La Chauvignerie (1736) and Morgan (1877) mention among the Potawatomi doodems (clans) being:

  • Bené (Turkey)

  • Gagagshi (Crow)

  • Gnew (Golden Eagle)

  • Jejakwe (Thunderer, i.e. Crane)

  • Mag (Loon)

  • Mekchi (Frog)

  • Mek (Beaver)

  • Mewi'a (Wolf)

  • Mgezewa (Bald Eagle)

  • Mkedésh-gékékwa (Black Hawk)

  • Mko (Bear)

  • Mshéwé (Elk)

  • Mshike (Turtle)

  • Nme (Sturgeon)

  • Nmébena (Carp)

  • Shage'shi (Crab)

  • Wabozo (Rabbit)

  • Wakeshi (Fox)

Ethnobotany

They regard Epigaea repens as their tribal flower and consider it to have come directly from their divinity. Allium tricoccum is consumed in traditional Potawatomi cuisine. They mix an infusion of the root of Uvularia grandiflora with lard and use it as salve to massage sore muscles and tendons. They use Symphyotrichum novae-angliae as a fumigating reviver. Vaccinium myrtilloides is part of their traditional cuisine, and is eaten fresh, dried, and canned. They also use the root bark of the plant for an unspecified ailment.

Location

The Potawatomi first lived in Lower Michigan, then moved to northern Wisconsin and eventually settled into northern Indiana and central Illinois. In the early 19th century, major portions of Potawatomi lands were seized by the US government. Following the Treaty of Chicago in 1833, by which the tribe ceded its lands in Illinois, most of the Potawatomi people were removed to Indian Territory, west of the Mississippi River. Many perished en route to new lands in the west on their journey through Iowa, Kansas, and Indian Territory, following what became known as the "Trail of Death".

Language

Potawatomi (also spelled Pottawatomie; in Potawatomi Bodéwadmimwen or Bodéwadmi Zheshmowen or Neshnabémwen) is a Central Algonquian language and is spoken around the Great Lakes in Michigan and Wisconsin. It is also spoken by Potawatomi in Kansas, Oklahoma, and in southern Ontario. As of 2001, fewer than 1,300 people spoke Potawatomi as a first language, most of them elderly. The people are working to revitalize the language, as evidenced by recent efforts such as the online Potawatomi language Dictionary created by the Citizen Potawatomi Nation or the various resources available through the Pokagon Band of Potawatomi Indians.

The Potawatomi language is most similar to the Odawa language; it also has borrowed a considerable amount of vocabulary from Sauk. Like the Odawa language, or the Ottawa dialect of the Anishinaabe language, the Potawatomi language exhibits a great amount of vowel syncope.

Many places in the Midwest have names derived from the Potawatomi language, including Waukegan, Muskegon, Oconomowoc, Pottawattamie County, Kalamazoo, and Skokie.

Potawatomi people

See also

References

Cited sources