The Wulff construction is a method to determine the equilibrium shape of a droplet or crystal of fixed volume inside a separate phase (usually its saturated solution or vapor). Energy minimization arguments are used to show that certain crystal planes are preferred over others, giving the crystal its shape. It is of fundamental importance in a number of areas ranging from the shape of nanoparticles and precipitates to nucleation. It also has more applied relevance in areas such as the shapes of active particles in heterogeneous catalysis.

Theory

In 1878 Josiah Willard Gibbs proposed that a droplet or crystal will arrange itself such that its surface Gibbs free energy is minimized by assuming a shape of low surface energy. He defined the quantity

.

In 1901 Russian scientist George Wulff statedth face, drawn from the center of the crystal to the face; for a spherical crystal this is simply the radius. This is known as the Gibbs-Wulff theorem.

In 1943 Laue gave a simple proof, with a more complete version given shortly after by Dinghas. The method was extended to include curved surfaces in 1953 by Herring with a different proof of the theorem which has been generalized with existence proofs by others such as the work of Johnson and Chakerian. Herring gave a method for determining the equilibrium shape of a crystal, consisting of two main exercises. is drawn at each point where it intersects the gamma plot. The inner envelope of these planes forms the equilibrium shape of the crystal.

The Wulff construction is for the equilibrium shape, but there is a corresponding form called the "kinetic Wulff construction" where the surface energy is replaced by a growth velocity. There are also variants that can be used for particles on surfaces and with twin boundaries.

Proof

Various proofs of the theorem have been given by Hilton, Liebman, Laue, Herring, and a rather extensive treatment by Cerf. The following is after the method of R. F. Strickland-Constable. We begin with the surface energy for a crystal

which is the product of the surface energy per unit area times the area of each face, summed over all faces. This is minimized for a given volume when

Surface free energy, being an intensive property of the crystal faces, one obtains

1. ,

which can be written, by applying the product rule, as

1. .

The second term must be zero, that is,

. This is in agreement with a simple geometric argument considering the pancake to be a cylinder with very small aspect ratio. The general result is taken here without proof. This result imposes that the remaining sum also equal 0,

Again, the surface energy minimization condition is that

for generality, to yield

, which then proves the Gibbs-Wulff Theorem.

See also

• Extended Wulff constructions - variants with twins and for kinetic control

References

External links

• Code from the group of Emilie Ringe which calculates thermodynamic and kinetic shapes for Wulff shapes and also does optical simulations, see also .

• Code from J M Rahm and P Erhart which calculates thermodynamic shapes, both continuum and atomistic, see also .

• The code can be used to generate thermodynamic Wulff shapes including twinning.